With a history that dates back from time immemorial, the First Nations form an important and distinct part of Canadian society. Christopher Columbus misnamed them "Indians" in 1492 when he thought he had arrived in India. Today, Indians are succeeding in reminding other Canadians they were once self-sustaining nations with their own forms of government. Indeed, some traditional forms of government still exist. Canadian Indians, or First Nations -- the preferred term -- are in a period of transition as they pursue a cultural, social, political and economic revival.
As of December 31, 1995, the Registered Indian population totalled 593, 050 persons. There were 608 bands accross Canada. When "registered," the individual is recognized under federal law as being an Indian, entitled to certain rights, privileges and benefits. About 55 percent of registered Indians live on specified areas of land, called reserves, set aside for their use and benefit. There are over 2200 reserves across Canada for some 605 First Nations. Most are in rural areas, many are isolated and some are not inhabited.
Most anthropologists believe that the North American Aboriginal groups migrated over the Bering Sea from Siberia, 10 000 to 30 000 years ago. When the European explorers and settlers arrived, Canada was populated by a diverse range of Aboriginal peoples who, depending on the environment, lived nomadic or settled lifestyles, were hunters, fishermen or farmers. They shared -- and continue to share -- a deep and spiritual relationship with the land and the life it supports. Each First Nation culture has distinct spiritual beliefs and ceremonies, many of which have been carried down through the generations by elders in an oral tradition.
Britain gained control of most of North America in 1760, and three years later issued the Royal Proclamation that reserved lands for the Indians and prescribed that only governments could deal with Indians on land matters. This prompted a series of land-cession treaties under which First Nations gave up their claims to specified tracts of land in return for lump-sum cash payments and annuities. Lands were also set aside as reserves -- areas for the use and benefit of the First Nations which would not be accessible to settlers coming into Canada from Europe or the United States. Under the terms of many treaties, hunting and fishing rights for First Nations were also protected.
From 1830 on, settlement on reserves in parts of what is now eastern Canada began under government guardianship; Aboriginal people effectively became wards of the state.
With Confederation, the new federal government was given legislative authority over "Indians and lands reserved for Indians." Passage of the first Indian Act in 1876 gave the federal government great powers to control Indians living on reserves: it dictated who was Indian and who wasn't; it controlled movement from the reserves; it dictated when and where children would go to school; and it denied Indian people the right to vote. Sections of the Act also gave the federal government authority over Indians who had no reserve lands.
Although the Indian Act was amended on a number of occasions to do away with these injustices, many of the provisions of the 1876 Act are still in place. For instance, the Act requires that the federal government supervise elections, approve or disallow First Nations by-laws, manage moneys belonging to First Nations and individuals, oversee their estates, and manage Indian lands.
Further efforts to assimilate Indians into Western society included a process called "enfranchisement." Prior to Confederation, the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 contained property and monetary inducements to encourage Indians to leave tribal societies and seek enfranchisement. The suggestion was that enfranchisement was a reward for adopting the lifestyle and customs of "civilized" citizens.
The year 1859 saw the passage of the Civilization and Enfranchisement Act, but few Indians relinquished their status and rights in favour of enfranchisements. Following Confederation, the Enfranchisement Act of 1869 intended to free Indians from their state of wardship under the federal government.
By the late 1940s and the 1950s, the Indian infant mortality rate was high and life expectancy was low. Several approaches in education, such as the system of residential schools, had clearly failed Indian youth. Housing standards on the reserves were poor. Problems associated with alcohol and unemployment were also widespread.
However, by the mid-1960s, there were signs of improvements in social and economic conditions. Health services were enhanced and Indian children had greatly improved access to higher education. By the end of the decade, Indians had obtained full political and legal rights.
Although Aboriginal people are now represented in almost every sector of the workforce, serious economic and social problems remain. Unemployment rates are high compared with rates among non-Aboriginal Canadians, and housing is still inadequate on many reserves. The First Nations, with the support of the Government of Canada, are working to address these issues.
There has been a significant increase in Aboriginal land claim activity over the past two decades. Many claims have been settled, and negotiations continue on others. There are two types of claims:
Both types of claims provide an opportunity to establish a land and economic base. In some ways, they are also important to the realization of Aboriginal self- determination, though they do not, in themselves, constitute self-government.
Constitutional changes that would recognize Aboriginal's inherent right to self- government remain an important goal for Canada's First Nations. Some First Nations already have community self-government arrangements that provide them with control on matters related to lands and land use, resources, health and social services, education and local taxation.
The decision to pursue community-based self-government agreements is made by individual First Nations, and arrangements are tailored to meet the unique circumstances of their communities.
Aboriginal entrepreneurs are participating more than ever before in the national economy and in every business sector with support from governments and the private sector.
Today, some 10 000 businesses are owned and operated by Aboriginal people. Resource development projects touch on many sectors, including commercial real estate development, forestry, tourism and mining.
Because most First Nations now have control over education programs in their communities (329 of the 363 on-reserve schools), student attendance has improved and the dropout rate has decreased. More than 63 percent of Indian and Inuit elementary and secondary students receive some instruction in their own language.
In the past ten years, the proportion of Aboriginal youth remaining in school until grade 12 has more than doubled: from 31% in 1985/85 to 73% in 1994/95. As for post-secondary education, the number of enrollments has more than tripled: an increase from 8 617 students in 1984/85 to 26 819 students in 1994/95. In ten years, the number of band-operated schools has doubled from 203 in 1984/85 to 412 in 1994/95. The percentage of Aboriginal youth in band-operated elementary and secondary schools has increased to over 54% in 1994/5 from 20% ten years ago. Government programs are also improving employment prospects and encouraging career progression for Aboriginal people in the federal public service and the private sector.
Living conditions for Aboriginal people lag behind those of the general Canadian population in many ways. Over the last 25 years, however, efforts have been made to improve the living conditions in First Nations communities.
Today, the administration of most social programs has been transferred to Indian institutions. In the 1960s, many Aboriginals lived in seriously inadequate housing with no electricity, water or sewage systems. Today, more than 80 percent of homes have adequate water and sewage facilities. Electricity is available in virtually all communities. More than 30 percent of the current housing stock has been built in the last five years and a further 35 percent has been renovated.
Because living conditions are improving, the health of Canada's First Nations has improved considerably. Better access to quality health care and greater community involvement in health education and delivery are also contributing factors.
The federal government is also working with Aboriginal groups and the provinces and territories to make the current system more responsive to the culture and traditions of Aboriginal people. Aboriginal communities also have the opportunity to develop community police services that meet their cultural values and needs.
Aboriginal people have much to offer in the effort to improve the environment. First Nations are developing their own plans to deal with environmental issues and are partners in government programs to shape policies and initiatives that will ensure the responsible management and preservation of the environment.
Today, Aboriginal culture is being reasserted as a key to community pride and self-reliance. Aboriginal languages, culture and history programs have been instituted in schools. Centres that promote Aboriginal culture, languages and traditional beliefs and practices can be found across the country and are increasingly being used to combat social problems. Elders are once again playing a vital role and linking the generations.
Numerous Aboriginal newspapers and an extensive network of Aboriginal radio and television services provide programming to their communities in their own languages. The work of Aboriginal artists is increasingly being accepted by the mainstream art community in Canada and abroad.
Aboriginal people are taking control of their future. Increasingly, they are gaining access to the same opportunities as other Canadians. The momentum for change is clear and strong, and more improvements can be expected in the years ahead.